The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study...
GMAT Reading Comprehension : (RC) Questions
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The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study contending that this epidemic greatly intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages. Thirty-six years later, historian George Coulton agreed but, paradoxically, attributed a silver lining to the Black Death: prosperity engendered by diminished competition for food, shelter, and work led survivors of the epidemic into the Renaissance and subsequent rise of modern Europe.
In the 1930s, however, Evgeny Kosminsky and other Marxist historians claimed the epidemic was merely an ancillary factor contributing to a general agrarian crisis stemming primarily from the inevitable decay of European feudalism. In arguing that this decline of feudalism was economically determined, the Marxist asserted that the Black Death was a relatively insignificant factor. This became the prevailing view until after the Second World War, when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history.
This central role of the Black Death (traditionally attributed to bubonic plague brought from Asia) has been recently challenged from another direction. Building on bacteriologist John Shrewsbury's speculations about mislabeled epidemics, zoologist Graham Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague. Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912. The Black Death, which he conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim.
Although correctly citing the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague, Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings and employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death. His speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions, while his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague.
Ques. 1/6
According to the passage, the post-Second World War studies that altered the prevailing view of the Black Death involved which of the following?
Solution
1. Passage Analysis:
Progressive Passage Analysis
| Text from Passage | Analysis |
|---|---|
| The Black Death, a severe epidemic that ravaged fourteenth century Europe, has intrigued scholars ever since Francis Gasquet's 1893 study contending that this epidemic greatly intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages. | What it says: The Black Death was a major epidemic in 1400s Europe. Scholars have been fascinated by it since 1893 when Francis Gasquet argued it helped end the Middle Ages by increasing political and religious chaos. What it does: Sets up the entire topic and establishes that this epidemic has been a subject of scholarly debate for over 100 years. Source/Type: Factual introduction referencing a historical scholar's claim Connection to Previous Sentences: This is our starting point - no previous information to connect to. Visualization: Timeline: 1300s (Black Death occurs) → 1893 (Gasquet studies it) → Today (still debating) Reading Strategy Insight: This opening tells us we're about to read about different scholars' views on the Black Death's impact - prepare for a chronological tour through different interpretations. |
| Thirty-six years later, historian George Coulton agreed but, paradoxically, attributed a silver lining to the Black Death: prosperity engendered by diminished competition for food, shelter, and work led survivors of the epidemic into the Renaissance and subsequent rise of modern Europe. | What it says: In 1929, George Coulton agreed the Black Death was important BUT said it actually had a good side - fewer people meant less competition for resources, which made survivors richer and helped start the Renaissance. What it does: Introduces the second scholarly view, showing agreement on importance but adding a positive angle. Source/Type: Historical scholar's claim/interpretation Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on sentence 1 by giving us a second scholar's view. Both scholars agree the Black Death was historically significant, but Coulton adds that it had beneficial effects. Visualization: Before Black Death: 100 people competing for 50 jobs → After Black Death: 30 people competing for 50 jobs = prosperity for survivors What We Know So Far: Two scholars (1893, 1929) both think Black Death was very important to European history What We Don't Know Yet: Whether other scholars agree with this importance Reading Strategy Insight: Notice the pattern emerging: different scholars, different time periods, but similar focus on the Black Death's major historical impact. |
| In the 1930s, however, Evgeny Kosminsky and other Marxist historians claimed the epidemic was merely an ancillary factor contributing to a general agrarian crisis stemming primarily from the inevitable decay of European feudalism. | What it says: In the 1930s, Marxist historians like Kosminsky disagreed. They said the Black Death was only a minor side factor in a broader agricultural crisis caused mainly by feudalism naturally falling apart. What it does: Introduces a contrasting view that diminishes the Black Death's importance. Source/Type: Marxist historians' interpretation/claim Connection to Previous Sentences: This contrasts sharply with sentences 1-2. While Gasquet and Coulton saw the Black Death as central to historical change, the Marxists see it as relatively unimportant compared to economic factors. Visualization: Previous view: Black Death = 80% of historical change Marxist view: Economic decay = 80%, Black Death = 20% Reading Strategy Insight: Key shift here! We're moving from "Black Death was super important" to "Black Death wasn't that important." This suggests the passage will show us this debate about the epidemic's significance. |
| In arguing that this decline of feudalism was economically determined, the Marxist asserted that the Black Death was a relatively insignificant factor. | What it says: The Marxists believed economic forces caused feudalism to end, so they insisted the Black Death wasn't very important. What it does: Restates and clarifies the previous sentence in simpler terms. Source/Type: Restatement of Marxist historians' position Connection to Previous Sentences: This is NOT new information! This restates the previous sentence more clearly. Sentence 3 gave us the complex version with technical terms, now sentence 4 gives us the simple takeaway. Visualization: Same as previous: Economic factors = major cause, Black Death = minor factor Reading Strategy Insight: Feel relieved here - this is simplification, not new complexity! The author is helping you by restating the Marxist position more clearly. |
| This became the prevailing view until after the Second World War, when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history. | What it says: The Marxist view dominated until after WWII (1945+), when detailed local studies showed the Black Death killed way more people than expected, making scholars think it was important again. What it does: Shows another shift in scholarly opinion and brings us closer to modern views. Source/Type: Historical account of changing scholarly consensus Connection to Previous Sentences: This continues our chronological tour of scholars' views. We've gone from "important" (1890s-1920s) to "unimportant" (1930s-1945) back to "important" (1945+). Visualization: Scholarly Opinion Timeline: 1893-1929: Black Death = Very Important 1930s-1945: Black Death = Not Important 1945+: Black Death = Very Important Again What We Know So Far: Scholars have flip-flopped on whether Black Death was historically significant What We Don't Know Yet: What current scholars think Reading Strategy Insight: We're seeing a pendulum swing back to the original view. This suggests the passage might introduce yet another challenge to the Black Death's importance. |
| This central role of the Black Death (traditionally attributed to bubonic plague brought from Asia) has been recently challenged from another direction. | What it says: The current belief that the Black Death (usually thought to be bubonic plague from Asia) was historically important is now being questioned in a new way. What it does: Sets up a new challenge to the Black Death's significance and introduces the disease identification. Source/Type: Author's transition to current debate Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on sentence 5's mention of the "central role" being restored, but now tells us this role is being challenged again. The pattern continues: importance → unimportance → importance → new challenge. Visualization: Opinion Pendulum: Important → Unimportant → Important → [New Challenge Coming] Reading Strategy Insight: The phrase "from another direction" signals we're about to meet a scholar with a completely different type of argument than what we've seen before. |
| Building on bacteriologist John Shrewsbury's speculations about mislabeled epidemics, zoologist Graham Twigg employs urban case studies suggesting that the rat population in Europe was both too sparse and insufficiently migratory to have spread plague. | What it says: Following ideas from bacteriologist Shrewsbury, zoologist Graham Twigg uses city studies to argue there weren't enough rats in Europe, and they didn't move around enough, to spread plague. What it does: Introduces the specific modern challenger (Twigg) and his first argument against the traditional view. Source/Type: Modern scholar's research-based argument Connection to Previous Sentences: This gives us the specific "new direction" challenge mentioned in sentence 6. Unlike previous scholars who debated the Black Death's impact, Twigg is questioning what disease it actually was. Visualization: Traditional view: Lots of rats everywhere carrying plague Twigg's view: Few rats, staying in one place = no plague spread possible Reading Strategy Insight: This is a completely different type of argument! Previous scholars argued about historical importance; Twigg argues about biological possibility. |
| Moreover, Twigg disputes the traditional trade-ship explanation for plague transmissions by extrapolating from data on the number of dead rats aboard Nile sailing vessels in 1912. | What it says: Additionally, Twigg challenges the idea that trade ships spread plague by using data about dead rats found on Nile River boats in 1912. What it does: Provides Twigg's second argument against the traditional explanation. Source/Type: Continuation of Twigg's research-based argument Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on sentence 7 by giving us Twigg's second piece of evidence. First he argued about rat populations, now he's arguing about ship transmission. Visualization: Traditional view: Ships full of plague rats sailing from Asia to Europe Twigg's view: 1912 Nile boats had few dead rats = medieval ships probably didn't spread plague either Reading Strategy Insight: The word "Moreover" signals this is additional evidence for the same argument, not a new argument entirely. |
| The Black Death, which he conjectures was anthrax instead of bubonic plague, therefore caused far less havoc and fewer deaths than historians typically claim. | What it says: Twigg guesses the Black Death was actually anthrax, not bubonic plague, and therefore killed fewer people and caused less chaos than historians usually say. What it does: Provides the clear conclusion of Twigg's argument by summarizing his main points. Source/Type: Twigg's conclusion/interpretation Connection to Previous Sentences: This ties together Twigg's arguments from sentences 7-8. His evidence about rats and ships leads to his conclusion that it wasn't plague at all, and therefore wasn't as devastating. Visualization: Traditional: Bubonic plague = massive deaths and historical change Twigg: Anthrax = fewer deaths and less historical impact What We Know So Far: Multiple scholars disagree about Black Death's importance AND what disease it was What We Don't Know Yet: What the author thinks about Twigg's argument Reading Strategy Insight: This sentence helps by clearly stating Twigg's bottom line. Don't get lost in his technical details - his main point is that the Black Death was less significant than traditionally thought. |
| Although correctly citing the exacting conditions needed to start or spread bubonic plague, Twigg ignores virtually a century of scholarship contradictory to his findings and employs faulty logic in his single-minded approach to the Black Death. | What it says: While Twigg is right about how difficult it is to start and spread bubonic plague, he ignores about 100 years of research that contradicts him and uses bad reasoning in his narrow focus. What it does: Begins the author's critique of Twigg by acknowledging what he got right before explaining what he got wrong. Source/Type: Author's critical evaluation Connection to Previous Sentences: This shifts from presenting Twigg's argument (sentences 7-9) to evaluating it. The author gives Twigg partial credit but clearly disagrees with his conclusions. Visualization: Twigg's argument = 25% correct + 75% flawed logic and ignored evidence Reading Strategy Insight: The word "Although" signals the author's position. This is classic RC structure: present an argument, then critique it. |
| His speculative generalizations about the numbers of rats in medieval Europe are based on isolated studies unrepresentative of medieval conditions, while his unconvincing trade-ship argument overlooks land-based caravans, the overland migration of infected rodents, and the many other animals that carry plague. | What it says: Twigg's guesses about medieval rat numbers come from limited studies that don't represent real medieval conditions, and his ship argument ignores land routes, infected animals moving overland, and other plague-carrying animals. What it does: Provides specific detailed criticism of both main arguments Twigg made earlier. Source/Type: Author's detailed critique with specific evidence Connection to Previous Sentences: This gives specific examples of the "faulty logic" mentioned in sentence 10. The author systematically addresses Twigg's rat argument (from sentence 7) and ship argument (from sentence 8). Visualization: Twigg's evidence: Small, unrepresentative studies Reality: Multiple transmission paths (ships, land routes, various animals) Reading Strategy Insight: This is the detailed breakdown of sentence 10's criticism. The author is systematically dismantling Twigg's arguments in the same order they were presented. This makes Twigg's challenge seem much weaker. |
2. Passage Summary:
Author's Purpose:
To trace the changing scholarly opinions about the Black Death's historical importance and to critique a recent challenge to the traditional view.
Summary of Passage Structure:
In this passage, the author walks us through over a century of scholarly debate about the Black Death, building toward a critique of the most recent argument:
- First, the author introduces the topic by showing how early scholars (1890s-1920s) viewed the Black Death as extremely important to European history
- Next, the author explains how Marxist historians (1930s-1940s) disagreed and argued the Black Death was relatively unimportant compared to economic factors
- Then, the author describes how post-WWII research swung opinion back to viewing the Black Death as historically significant, before introducing a modern challenge from zoologist Graham Twigg who questions what disease the Black Death actually was
- Finally, the author presents and then systematically critiques Twigg's arguments, pointing out flaws in his logic and evidence
Main Point:
While scholars have debated the Black Death's importance for over a century, the most recent challenge by Graham Twigg is flawed because it relies on weak evidence and ignores important research that contradicts his conclusions.
3. Question Analysis:
This question asks us to identify what the post-Second World War studies specifically involved that changed the prevailing view of the Black Death. We need to find the exact actions or methods these studies used.
Connecting to Our Passage Analysis:
From our passage analysis, we know that:
- The Marxist view (1930s-1940s) dominated scholarly opinion, arguing the Black Death was relatively insignificant
- After WWII (1945+), new studies changed this prevailing view
- These post-war studies "restored the central role of the Black Death in history"
- The key sentence states: "when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history"
Prethinking:
The passage clearly indicates that post-WWII studies involved examining "specific regions and towns" and discovering "astonishing mortality rates." This suggests these studies were focused on determining death rates in particular locations, which then led scholars to reconsider the Black Death's historical importance. The answer should reflect this specific methodology of studying regional and local death rates.
Answer Choices Explained
A
Determining the death rates caused by the Black Death in specific regions and towns
Why It's Right:
- Directly matches the passage description of post-WWII studies examining "specific regions and towns"
- Aligns with the passage's emphasis on "astonishing mortality rates" being revealed
- Connects the methodology (studying death rates) to the outcome (changing scholarly opinion about the Black Death's importance)
Key Evidence: "when studies of specific regions and towns revealed astonishing mortality rates ascribed to the epidemic, thus restoring the central role of the Black Death in history"
B
Demonstrating how the Black Death intensified the political and religious upheaval that ended the Middle Ages
Why It's Wrong:
- This describes Francis Gasquet's 1893 study, not the post-WWII studies
- The passage places this argument in the 19th century, decades before World War II
- Confuses the chronological sequence of scholarly arguments presented in the passage
Common Student Mistakes:
- Did I mix up the different time periods and scholars mentioned?
→ Create a timeline: 1893 (Gasquet), 1929 (Coulton), 1930s (Marxists), 1945+ (post-WWII studies) - Am I focusing on the content of arguments rather than when they were made?
→ Pay attention to temporal markers like "post-Second World War" in the question
C
Presenting evidence to prove that many medieval epidemics were mislabeled
Why It's Wrong:
- This describes John Shrewsbury's work, which is mentioned as recent/modern, not post-WWII
- Shrewsbury's ideas are presented as foundation for Twigg's arguments, not the post-WWII studies that changed prevailing views
- The passage presents this as challenging the current view, not restoring the Black Death's importance
Common Student Mistakes:
- Did I confuse recent challenges with post-WWII restoration of importance?
→ Note that Shrewsbury/Twigg challenge the Black Death's significance, while post-WWII studies restored it - Am I picking an answer about mislabeling just because it sounds scholarly?
→ Focus on what specifically happened after WWII according to the passage
D
Arguing that the consequences of the Black Death led to the Renaissance and the rise of modern Europe
Why It's Wrong:
- This describes George Coulton's 1929 argument, occurring well before World War II
- The passage explicitly dates this view as "Thirty-six years later" after Gasquet's 1893 study
- Represents early 20th century scholarship, not post-WWII developments
Common Student Mistakes:
- Am I attracted to this because it mentions positive consequences?
→ Remember that timing matters - this is from 1929, not post-WWII - Did I forget to check when each argument was made?
→ Always match the chronological requirements in the question with the timeline in the passage
E
Employing urban case studies to determine the number of rats in medieval Europe
Why It's Wrong:
- This describes Graham Twigg's modern research methodology, not post-WWII studies
- Twigg's urban case studies are used to challenge the Black Death's importance, opposite of what post-WWII studies did
- The passage presents Twigg as recent/contemporary, part of current challenges rather than post-WWII restoration
Common Student Mistakes:
- Did I see "urban case studies" and think it matched "specific regions and towns"?
→ Consider the purpose: Twigg challenges importance, post-WWII studies restored importance - Am I confusing different types of local studies mentioned in the passage?
→ Distinguish between studies that restored the Black Death's importance vs. those that challenge it
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