One of the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinforcement theory, which explains alcoholism by considering alcohol ingestion...
GMAT Reading Comprehension : (RC) Questions
One of the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinforcement theory, which explains alcoholism by considering alcohol ingestion as a reflex response to some stimulus and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as fear or anxiety. Characterizing life situations in terms of approach and avoidance, this theory holds that persons tend to be drawn to pleasant situations and repelled by unpleasant ones. In the latter case, alcohol ingestion is said to reduce the tension or feelings of unpleasantness and to replace them with the feeling of euphoria generally observed in most persons after they have consumed one or more drinks.
Some experimental evidence tends to show that alcohol reduces fear in the approach-avoidance situation. Conger trained one group of rats to approach a food goal and, using aversion conditioning, trained another group to avoid electric shock. After an injection of alcohol the pull away from the shock was measurable weaker, while the pull toward the food was unchanged.
The obvious troubles experienced by alcoholic persons appear to contradict the learning theory in the explanation of alcoholism. The discomfort, pain, and punishment they experience should presumably serve as a deterrent to drinking. The fact that alcoholic persons continue to drink in the face of family discord, loss of employment, illness, and other sequels of repeated bouts is explained by the proximity of the drive reduction to the consumption of alcohol; that is, alcohol has the immediate effect of reducing tension while the unpleasant consequences of drunken behavior come only later. The learning paradigm, therefore, favors the establishment and repetition of the resort to alcohol.
In fact, the anxieties and feelings of guilt induced by the consequences of excessive alcohol ingestion may themselves become the signal for another bout of alcohol abuse. The way in which the cue for another bout could be the anxiety itself is explained by the process of stimulus generalization: conditions or events occurring at the time of reinforcement tend to acquire the characteristics of state of anxiety or fear, the emotional state itself takes on the properties of a stimulus, thus triggering another drinking bout.
The role of punishment is becoming increasingly important in formulating a cause of alcoholism based on the principles of learning theory. While punishment may serve to suppress a response, experiments have shown that in some cases it can serve as a reward and reinforce the behavior. Thus if the alcoholic person has learned to drink under conditions of both reward and punishment, either type of condition may precipitate renewed drinking.
Ample experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that excessive alcohol consumption can be learned. By gradually increasing the concentration of alcohol in drinking water, psychologists have been able to induce the ingestion of larger amounts of alcohol by an animal than would be normally consumed. Other researchers have been able to achieve similar results by varying the schedule of reinforcement—that is, by requiring the animal to consume larger and larger amounts of the alcohol solutions before rewarding it. In this manner, animals learn to drink enough to become dependent on alcohol in terms of demonstrating withdrawal symptoms.
The primary purpose of the passage is to
1. Passage Analysis:
Progressive Passage Analysis
| Text from Passage | Analysis |
|---|---|
| One of the many theories about alcoholism is the learning and reinforcement theory, which explains alcoholism by considering alcohol ingestion as a reflex response to some stimulus and as a way to reduce an inner drive state such as fear or anxiety. | What it says: There's a theory that alcoholism happens because drinking becomes an automatic response to triggers, and people drink to reduce bad feelings like fear or anxiety. What it does: Introduces the main theory the passage will discuss Source/Type: Factual statement about a scientific theory Connection to Previous Sentences: This is our opening - establishes the central concept Visualization: Stimulus → Automatic drinking response → Reduced anxiety/fear What We Know So Far: There's a learning theory about alcoholism involving automatic responses What We Don't Know Yet: How this theory works in detail, what evidence supports it Reading Strategy Insight: Note the clear, straightforward introduction - no jargon yet |
| Characterizing life situations in terms of approach and avoidance, this theory holds that persons tend to be drawn to pleasant situations and repelled by unpleasant ones. | What it says: The theory says people naturally move toward good things and away from bad things. What it does: Provides the basic psychological principle underlying the theory Source/Type: Theoretical principle from learning theory Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on sentence 1 by explaining the fundamental assumption of how people behave. This is actually a simplification - taking the complex "learning and reinforcement theory" and breaking it down to basic human nature. Visualization: Pleasant situations ← Person → Unpleasant situations (approach) (avoid) Reading Strategy Insight: Feel relieved here - this is simplification, not new complexity! The author is explaining the theory in simple terms. |
| In the latter case, alcohol ingestion is said to reduce the tension or feelings of unpleasantness and to replace them with the feeling of euphoria generally observed in most persons after they have consumed one or more drinks. | What it says: When people are in unpleasant situations (from sentence 2), drinking alcohol reduces the bad feelings and creates good feelings instead. What it does: Connects the general principle to alcoholism specifically Source/Type: Theoretical claim about alcohol's effects Connection to Previous Sentences: This directly builds on sentence 2's "repelled by unpleasant ones" by explaining how alcohol helps people escape unpleasant situations. This is still explaining the same basic idea - alcohol as escape from bad feelings. Visualization: Unpleasant situation → Drink alcohol → Tension reduced + Euphoria added What We Know So Far: Learning theory says people avoid bad situations, and alcohol helps them do this by reducing bad feelings and creating good ones Reading Strategy Insight: We're still building the same concept - no new complexity yet |
| Some experimental evidence tends to show that alcohol reduces fear in the approach-avoidance situation. Conger trained one group of rats to approach a food goal and, using aversion conditioning, trained another group to avoid electric shock. After an injection of alcohol the pull away from the shock was measurably weaker, while the pull toward the food was unchanged. | What it says: An experiment with rats showed that alcohol makes them less afraid of bad things (electric shock) but doesn't change their desire for good things (food). What it does: Provides concrete experimental evidence for the theory Source/Type: Research evidence from Conger's experiment Connection to Previous Sentences: This gives us proof of what sentences 1-3 claimed. The theory predicted alcohol reduces fear/unpleasantness, and Conger's experiment confirms this. This is evidence supporting what we already learned, not new information. Visualization: Group 1: Food goal ← Rats (unchanged with alcohol) Group 2: Electric shock ← Rats (much weaker avoidance with alcohol) Reading Strategy Insight: This should increase your confidence - we now have experimental proof of the theory! |
| The obvious troubles experienced by alcoholic persons appear to contradict the learning theory in the explanation of alcoholism. | What it says: There seems to be a problem with this learning theory because alcoholics clearly suffer a lot. What it does: Introduces a potential contradiction to the theory Source/Type: Author's observation about apparent inconsistency Connection to Previous Sentences: This contrasts with sentences 1-4 by pointing out that if alcohol helps people avoid unpleasantness, why do alcoholics experience so much trouble? Visualization: Learning theory says: Alcohol → Less unpleasantness Reality shows: Alcoholism → Lots of trouble/unpleasantness What We Know So Far: Learning theory + supporting evidence, BUT there's an apparent contradiction What We Don't Know Yet: How the theory explains this contradiction Reading Strategy Insight: The author is setting up a problem to solve - expect the explanation to come next |
| The discomfort, pain, and punishment they experience should presumably serve as a deterrent to drinking. The fact that alcoholic persons continue to drink in the face of family discord, loss of employment, illness, and other sequels of repeated bouts is explained by the proximity of the drive reduction to the consumption of alcohol; that is, alcohol has the immediate effect of reducing tension while the unpleasant consequences of drunken behavior come only later. | What it says: All the bad consequences should stop people from drinking, but they don't because the good effects of alcohol happen immediately while the bad consequences happen later. What it does: Resolves the contradiction by explaining timing Source/Type: Learning theory's explanation for the apparent contradiction Connection to Previous Sentences: This directly answers the problem raised in sentence 5. This shows the learning theory actually CAN explain alcoholism - it's about immediate vs. delayed effects. Visualization: Drink alcohol → IMMEDIATE tension reduction (strong reinforcement) ↓ Hours/days later → Family problems, job loss, illness (delayed consequences) Reading Strategy Insight: Relief! The apparent contradiction is resolved. The theory still works - it's about timing. |
| The learning paradigm, therefore, favors the establishment and repetition of the resort to alcohol. | What it says: Because of how learning works (immediate reward beats delayed punishment), people will keep turning to alcohol repeatedly. What it does: Summarizes how the learning process creates the addiction pattern Source/Type: Logical conclusion from learning theory principles Connection to Previous Sentences: This restates the main conclusion from all the previous information. This is NOT new - it's a simple summary of what we've learned. Visualization: Immediate alcohol relief > Delayed bad consequences = Repeated drinking behavior Reading Strategy Insight: This is a helpful summary sentence - the author is making sure we understand the main point. |
| In fact, the anxieties and feelings of guilt induced by the consequences of excessive alcohol ingestion may themselves become the signal for another bout of alcohol abuse. | What it says: The bad feelings caused by drinking problems can actually trigger more drinking. What it does: Shows how the cycle becomes self-perpetuating Source/Type: Additional implication of the learning theory Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on sentence 6's explanation by showing how it creates a vicious cycle. The "unpleasant consequences" mentioned in sentence 6 become new triggers for drinking, connecting back to sentence 1's "stimulus" concept. Visualization: Drink → Bad consequences → Anxiety/guilt → Drink again → More bad consequences → More anxiety → More drinking... Reading Strategy Insight: This deepens our understanding but doesn't contradict anything - it shows how the pattern reinforces itself |
| The way in which the cue for another bout could be the anxiety itself is explained by the process of stimulus generalization: conditions or events occurring at the time of reinforcement tend to acquire the characteristics of state of anxiety or fear, the emotional state itself takes on the properties of a stimulus, thus triggering another drinking bout. | What it says: Through "stimulus generalization," the anxiety feeling itself becomes a trigger for drinking because anxiety was present during previous drinking episodes. What it does: Provides the technical explanation for how emotions become drinking triggers Source/Type: Learning theory mechanism (stimulus generalization) Connection to Previous Sentences: This explains the "how" behind sentence 8's claim. This is technical detail explaining what we already learned - anxiety becomes a trigger. Visualization: Past: Anxiety present + Drinking + Relief = Learning connection Future: Anxiety alone → Automatic drinking trigger Reading Strategy Insight: Don't get lost in "stimulus generalization" - it's just the technical name for anxiety becoming a drinking trigger |
| The role of punishment is becoming increasingly important in formulating a cause of alcoholism based on the principles of learning theory. While punishment may serve to suppress a response, experiments have shown that in some cases it can serve as a reward and reinforce the behavior. | What it says: Punishment is important in understanding alcoholism because sometimes punishment can actually encourage behavior instead of stopping it. What it does: Introduces another aspect of how learning theory explains alcoholism Source/Type: Research findings about punishment's paradoxical effects Connection to Previous Sentences: This builds on the punishment theme from sentences 5-6, but adds a new twist - sometimes punishment reinforces drinking rather than stopping it. This doesn't contradict earlier information but adds complexity. Visualization: Normal: Bad consequence → Less behavior Alcoholism: Bad consequence → Sometimes MORE behavior Reading Strategy Insight: This explains why the "obvious" solution (punishment/consequences) doesn't work for alcoholics |
| Thus if the alcoholic person has learned to drink under conditions of both reward and punishment, either type of condition may precipitate renewed drinking. | What it says: If someone has learned to drink when good things happen AND when bad things happen, then either good or bad situations can trigger drinking. What it does: Shows how alcoholics become triggered by almost any situation Source/Type: Logical conclusion from learning theory Connection to Previous Sentences: This combines the reward aspect (sentences 1-3) with the punishment aspect (sentences 10-11) to show why alcoholism is so persistent. This is synthesis of previous concepts, not new information. Visualization: Good situation → Learned drinking response Bad situation → Also learned drinking response Result: Almost any situation can trigger drinking Reading Strategy Insight: This explains why alcoholism is so hard to break - almost everything becomes a trigger! |
| Ample experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that excessive alcohol consumption can be learned. By gradually increasing the concentration of alcohol in drinking water, psychologists have been able to induce the ingestion of larger amounts of alcohol by an animal than would be normally consumed. | What it says: There's lots of experimental proof that alcoholism can be learned. Scientists made animals drink more alcohol by slowly increasing the alcohol content in their water. What it does: Provides experimental confirmation of the learning theory Source/Type: Research evidence from animal studies Connection to Previous Sentences: This provides additional experimental support for the entire learning theory discussed in the passage. Like Conger's experiment (sentence 4), this gives concrete evidence for theoretical claims. Visualization: Day 1: 1% alcohol in water → Animals drink normally Day 30: 5% alcohol in water → Animals still drink normally Day 60: 10% alcohol in water → High alcohol consumption learned Reading Strategy Insight: More supportive evidence - this should increase confidence in the theory |
| Other researchers have been able to achieve similar results by varying the schedule of reinforcement—that is, by requiring the animal to consume larger and larger amounts of the alcohol solutions before rewarding it. In this manner, animals learn to drink enough to become dependent on alcohol in terms of demonstrating withdrawal symptoms. | What it says: Other scientists got the same results by making animals drink more and more alcohol to get rewards, until the animals became physically dependent and showed withdrawal symptoms. What it does: Provides a second experimental method that confirms the learning theory Source/Type: Additional research evidence Connection to Previous Sentences: This reinforces sentence 13's evidence with a different experimental approach that gets the same results - more confirmation of the learning theory. Visualization: Week 1: Drink 1 unit alcohol → Get reward Week 4: Drink 3 units alcohol → Get reward Week 8: Drink 5 units alcohol → Get reward Result: Physical dependence + withdrawal symptoms What We Know So Far: Complete learning theory explanation with multiple experimental confirmations Reading Strategy Insight: The passage ends with strong experimental support - the theory is well-established, not speculative. |
2. Passage Summary:
Author's Purpose:
To explain how learning and reinforcement theory accounts for alcoholism by showing how drinking becomes a learned behavior that reinforces itself through immediate rewards and delayed punishments.
Summary of Passage Structure:
In this passage, the author walks us through a complete explanation of how learning theory explains alcoholism:
- First, the author introduces the basic learning theory of alcoholism - that people drink automatically in response to triggers because alcohol reduces bad feelings like fear and anxiety.
- Next, the author provides experimental evidence showing that alcohol really does reduce fear and avoidance behaviors in laboratory animals.
- Then, the author addresses an obvious problem with the theory - if alcohol helps people avoid unpleasantness, why do alcoholics suffer so much trouble? The author explains this happens because alcohol's good effects are immediate while the bad consequences come later, making the drinking pattern stick.
- Finally, the author shows how the cycle becomes self-reinforcing, where even punishment can trigger more drinking, and provides experimental evidence that animals can indeed be trained to develop alcohol dependence through learning methods.
Main Point:
Learning and reinforcement theory successfully explains alcoholism as a learned behavior where people become trapped in a cycle of drinking because alcohol provides immediate relief from bad feelings, while the negative consequences come too late to stop the behavior - and eventually, both good and bad situations can trigger drinking.
Why It's Wrong:
• The passage focuses exclusively on learning and reinforcement theory without mentioning or comparing it to other theories
• The opening "One of the many theories" acknowledges other theories exist but doesn't discuss them
• No comparative analysis is provided throughout the passage
Why It's Wrong:
• The passage goes beyond just discussing behaviors to arguing that alcoholism IS learned
• The extensive experimental evidence serves to prove a point, not just explain behaviors
• The author resolves contradictions and shows how the theory accounts for all aspects of alcoholism
Why It's Right:
• The author systematically builds evidence that alcoholism develops through learning processes
• Experimental evidence at beginning (Conger) and end (animal studies) proves alcoholism can be learned
• The author addresses and resolves potential objections to strengthen the argument
• The progression moves from theory to evidence to proof that learning creates alcoholic behavior
Why It's Wrong:
• While fear and anxiety are discussed, they're just part of a broader argument about learned behavior
• The passage covers much more than just fear/anxiety - includes punishment, rewards, stimulus generalization
• This choice is too narrow to capture the full scope of the passage
Why It's Wrong:
• This choice treats the passage as merely presenting evidence rather than making an argument
• The experimental evidence serves to support the argument that alcoholism is learned, not as the primary purpose itself
• The passage includes theoretical explanations and problem-solving, not just evidence presentation