In recent years, variations of the "precautionary principle" have been adopted in international environmental agreements and regulations. Advocates of...
GMAT Reading Comprehension : (RC) Questions
In recent years, variations of the "precautionary principle" have been adopted in international environmental agreements and regulations. Advocates of its use in such contexts hold that where there is a threat of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of a consensus regarding the scientific certainty of the threat should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective environmental regulations to prevent the damage. Advocates argue that the precautionary principle reinforces commonsense notions of environmental stewardship. Opponents, however, view it as a fundamentally unscientific rule that exploits the public's fear of the unfamiliar and promotes radical environmental agendas or protectionist trade policies disguised as environmental regulations.
Advocates counter that the precautionary principle's application is justified by science's demonstrated fallibility in anticipating environmental hazards such as asbestosis and ozone depletion. Additionally, they say, some potential environmental hazards cannot be predicted with any certainty by existing scientific methods. Thus, the precautionary principle would allow potentially harmful activities to be regulated even if conclusive proof that harm will occur has yet to be established. However, given that environmental regulations entail real costs—e.g., concern with improbable risks can consume resources that could be better applied to higher-probability risks—opponents also note that the precautionary principle can be taken too far.
The distinction between uncertainty and what might be called "true uncertainty" is important to understanding the scope of the precautionary principle. Uncertainty generally refers to situations in which outcomes are probabilistic in nature, but for which a probability distribution can be formulated. True uncertainty refers to situations in which even the probability of an outcome is not known. It is this latter situation with which advocates of the precautionary principle are primarily concerned. For example, trials may be performed to determine the frequency with which a particular gasoline storage tank will fail in relation to its age—an uncertain harm—which in turn may be used to formulate a probability distribution on which to base regulations. Truly uncertain harms, such as global warming, often arise when controlled testing is impossible and there is no experience from which to construct a probability distribution.
The final paragraph of the passage functions primarily to
1. Passage Analysis:
Progressive Passage Analysis
| Text from Passage | Analysis |
|---|---|
| In recent years, variations of the "precautionary principle" have been adopted in international environmental agreements and regulations. | What it says: There's something called the "precautionary principle" that's being used in environmental rules around the world. What it does: Introduces the main concept we'll be discussing Source/Type: Factual statement about current trends Connection to Previous Sentences: This is our starting point - no previous context yet Visualization: Think of international climate agreements, trade regulations, or environmental treaties that countries sign Reading Strategy Insight: Note that we don't know what this principle IS yet - just that it exists and is being used What We Know So Far: A principle exists and is being adopted internationally What We Don't Know Yet: What the principle actually says or does |
| Advocates of its use in such contexts hold that where there is a threat of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of a consensus regarding the scientific certainty of the threat should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective environmental regulations to prevent the damage. | What it says: Supporters say: "Even if scientists aren't 100% sure something bad will happen to the environment, we shouldn't wait to make rules to prevent it." What it does: Defines what the precautionary principle actually means Source/Type: Advocates' viewpoint/argument Connection to Previous Sentences: This DEFINES the concept introduced in sentence 1. Now we know what the precautionary principle actually is. Visualization: Scenario: Scientists think a chemical might cause cancer but aren't 100% certain. Advocates say: "Don't wait for absolute proof - regulate it now if the potential harm is serious." Reading Strategy Insight: Feel relieved here - this explains the mysterious concept from sentence 1. Complexity is decreasing, not increasing. |
| Advocates argue that the precautionary principle reinforces commonsense notions of environmental stewardship. | What it says: Supporters think this principle just makes common sense for protecting the environment. What it does: Provides additional support for the advocates' position Source/Type: Advocates' argument Connection to Previous Sentences: This REINFORCES the advocates' view from sentence 2. It's saying "this principle is just common sense" - making their position seem more reasonable. Visualization: Like wearing a seatbelt - you don't wait for proof you'll crash; you take precautions because the potential harm is serious Reading Strategy Insight: This is NOT new complexity - it's the author giving us more reasons why advocates support the principle |
| Opponents, however, view it as a fundamentally unscientific rule that exploits the public's fear of the unfamiliar and promotes radical environmental agendas or protectionist trade policies disguised as environmental regulations. | What it says: Critics say the principle is unscientific, scares people unnecessarily, and gets used to push extreme environmental or trade policies. What it does: Introduces the opposing viewpoint Source/Type: Opponents' criticism Connection to Previous Sentences: This CONTRASTS with the advocates' view from sentences 2-3. We now have both sides of the debate. Visualization: Critics might say: "This principle lets environmentalists ban useful products by creating fear about unproven risks, or lets countries block imports by claiming environmental concerns." Reading Strategy Insight: Classic RC pattern: Present one side, then the other. We now have the basic structure of the debate. What We Know So Far: The precautionary principle, what advocates and opponents think about it What We Don't Know Yet: More details about how it works in practice |
| Advocates counter that the precautionary principle's application is justified by science's demonstrated fallibility in anticipating environmental hazards such as asbestosis and ozone depletion. | What it says: Supporters respond: "Science has been wrong before about environmental dangers (like asbestos and ozone problems), so we need this principle." What it does: Provides advocates' rebuttal to opponents' criticisms Source/Type: Advocates' counter-argument with specific examples Connection to Previous Sentences: This RESPONDS to sentence 4's criticism. Advocates are saying "You call it unscientific, but science itself has failed us before." Visualization: Asbestos was used for decades before we knew it caused cancer; CFCs were used before we knew they depleted ozone. Advocates say: "See? Science missed these dangers." Reading Strategy Insight: This is still the same basic debate - just more evidence for the advocates' side. The examples help clarify their argument. |
| Additionally, they say, some potential environmental hazards cannot be predicted with any certainty by existing scientific methods. | What it says: Advocates also point out that current scientific tools can't predict some environmental dangers with certainty. What it does: Adds another layer to advocates' argument Source/Type: Additional advocate argument Connection to Previous Sentences: This BUILDS ON sentence 5. First advocates said "science has been wrong," now they're saying "science has limitations." Visualization: Some environmental risks are too complex or long-term for current scientific methods to measure accurately Reading Strategy Insight: This reinforces the same point as sentence 5 - advocates are building their case that we can't always rely on scientific certainty |
| Thus, the precautionary principle would allow potentially harmful activities to be regulated even if conclusive proof that harm will occur has yet to be established. | What it says: So the principle lets us regulate dangerous activities even without definitive proof they'll cause harm. What it does: Summarizes the practical application of the principle Source/Type: Logical conclusion/summary Connection to Previous Sentences: This SUMMARIZES what we learned in sentences 2, 5, and 6. The word "Thus" signals this is a conclusion, not new information. Visualization: A new chemical might harm ecosystems, but testing takes years. The principle says: "Regulate it now while testing continues, rather than wait for conclusive proof." Reading Strategy Insight: "Thus" is your friend! This restates the core concept in simpler terms. Feel more confident, not less. |
| However, given that environmental regulations entail real costs—e.g., concern with improbable risks can consume resources that could be better applied to higher-probability risks—opponents also note that the precautionary principle can be taken too far. | What it says: But regulations cost money, and opponents worry that focusing on unlikely risks wastes resources that could address more likely problems. What it does: Presents another dimension of the opponents' argument Source/Type: Opponents' practical concern Connection to Previous Sentences: This ADDS to the opponents' view from sentence 4. They're not just saying it's unscientific - they're saying it's economically wasteful. Visualization: Spending $100 million to prevent a 1% chance risk when you could spend that money preventing a 50% chance risk elsewhere Reading Strategy Insight: Still the same basic debate structure - we're just getting more details on both sides' arguments |
| The distinction between uncertainty and what might be called "true uncertainty" is important to understanding the scope of the precautionary principle. | What it says: To really understand how this principle works, we need to know the difference between regular "uncertainty" and "true uncertainty." What it does: Introduces a key technical distinction Source/Type: Author's analytical framework Connection to Previous Sentences: This SHIFTS to a more detailed explanation of how the principle works. We've heard the debate; now we're getting the mechanics. Visualization: Think of two types of uncertainty that will be explained Reading Strategy Insight: The author is promising to clarify something complex. Expect the next sentences to make this distinction clear. What We Know So Far: The basic debate about the precautionary principle What We Don't Know Yet: What these two types of uncertainty are |
| Uncertainty generally refers to situations in which outcomes are probabilistic in nature, but for which a probability distribution can be formulated. | What it says: Regular uncertainty = we don't know exactly what will happen, but we can calculate the odds. What it does: Defines the first type of uncertainty Source/Type: Technical definition Connection to Previous Sentences: This EXPLAINS the first half of the distinction promised in sentence 9. Visualization: Flipping a coin - you don't know if it'll be heads or tails, but you know there's a 50% chance of each outcome Reading Strategy Insight: The author is keeping their promise to explain the distinction. This is clarification, not additional complexity. |
| True uncertainty refers to situations in which even the probability of an outcome is not known. | What it says: True uncertainty = we don't even know what the odds are. What it does: Defines the second type of uncertainty Source/Type: Technical definition Connection to Previous Sentences: This COMPLETES the distinction started in sentence 9 and continued in sentence 10. Visualization: Like trying to predict what new technology will be invented in 50 years - you can't even estimate the probability Reading Strategy Insight: Now we have both halves of the distinction. The complex concept is becoming clearer. |
| It is this latter situation with which advocates of the precautionary principle are primarily concerned. | What it says: The precautionary principle is mainly about "true uncertainty" situations (where we can't even calculate odds). What it does: Connects the technical distinction back to the main topic Source/Type: Author's explanation Connection to Previous Sentences: This LINKS the uncertainty distinction (sentences 9-11) back to the precautionary principle discussion from earlier. Visualization: The principle is designed for situations where we can't calculate probabilities, not for situations where we can Reading Strategy Insight: This ties everything together! Now we understand WHEN the principle applies. The piece is getting simpler, not more complex. |
| For example, trials may be performed to determine the frequency with which a particular gasoline storage tank will fail in relation to its age—an uncertain harm—which in turn may be used to formulate a probability distribution on which to base regulations. | What it says: Example of regular uncertainty: We can test gas tanks to figure out failure rates by age, then make rules based on those odds. What it does: Provides concrete example of regular uncertainty Source/Type: Illustrative example Connection to Previous Sentences: This ILLUSTRATES the "uncertainty" concept from sentence 10 with a real-world example. Visualization: Test 1000 gas tanks of different ages, find that 5-year tanks fail 1% of the time, 10-year tanks fail 5% of the time, etc. Use these rates to make replacement rules. Reading Strategy Insight: Examples make concepts easier! This shows us what regular uncertainty looks like in practice. |
| Truly uncertain harms, such as global warming, often arise when controlled testing is impossible and there is no experience from which to construct a probability distribution. | What it says: Example of true uncertainty: Global warming - we can't test it in a lab and haven't experienced it before, so we can't calculate the odds. What it does: Provides concrete example of true uncertainty Source/Type: Illustrative example Connection to Previous Sentences: This ILLUSTRATES the "true uncertainty" concept from sentence 11 with a real-world example, parallel to sentence 13. Visualization: Unlike gas tanks, you can't run controlled experiments on Earth's climate, and we've never experienced this level of warming before Reading Strategy Insight: Perfect parallel structure! Gas tanks = regular uncertainty (testable), Global warming = true uncertainty (untestable). The author is helping us understand through contrast. What We Now Understand: The precautionary principle applies when we face situations like global warming - where we can't calculate the odds but the potential harm is serious |
2. Passage Summary:
Author's Purpose:
To explain what the precautionary principle is, present the main arguments for and against it, and clarify when and how it should be applied by distinguishing between different types of uncertainty.
Summary of Passage Structure:
In this passage, the author walks us through a balanced examination of an environmental policy tool:
- First, the author introduces the precautionary principle and explains what supporters believe it should do - allow environmental regulations even when scientists aren't completely certain about risks.
- Next, the author presents both sides of the debate, showing how advocates view it as common sense environmental protection while opponents see it as unscientific fear-mongering.
- Then, the author gives advocates a chance to respond with evidence that science has failed before and has limitations in predicting some environmental dangers.
- Finally, the author provides a technical framework to understand when the principle should apply by explaining two types of uncertainty and showing that the principle is mainly meant for situations where we can't even calculate the odds of harm.
Main Point:
The precautionary principle is specifically designed for situations involving "true uncertainty" - cases where we cannot calculate the probability of environmental harm because controlled testing is impossible and we have no prior experience to guide us, rather than ordinary uncertain situations where we can still estimate odds.
Question Analysis:
The question asks us to identify the primary function of the final paragraph in the passage. This requires us to understand what the last paragraph accomplishes in relation to the overall passage structure and argument.
Connecting to Our Passage Analysis:
From our passage analysis, we can see that the final paragraph (sentences 9-14) serves a specific structural purpose:
- It introduces a technical distinction between "uncertainty" and "true uncertainty"
- It explains that advocates of the precautionary principle are primarily concerned with "true uncertainty" situations
- It provides concrete examples: gas tank failures (regular uncertainty) vs. global warming (true uncertainty)
- It clarifies when the precautionary principle would actually apply
The passage analysis shows this paragraph shifts from the debate between advocates and opponents to a more technical explanation of scope and application. As noted in the analysis, sentence 9 promises to clarify something complex, and the following sentences deliver on that promise by distinguishing between situations where we can calculate probabilities versus situations where we cannot.
Prethinking:
Based on our passage structure analysis, the final paragraph doesn't provide new evidence for either side of the debate. Instead, it clarifies the specific circumstances under which advocates believe the precautionary principle should be applied. The key insight is that the principle is designed for "true uncertainty" scenarios (like global warming) where controlled testing is impossible and probability distributions cannot be formulated, rather than regular "uncertainty" scenarios (like gas tank failures) where odds can be calculated. This suggests the answer will focus on clarification of scope or applicability rather than providing evidence or summarizing arguments.
- The final paragraph doesn't provide evidence supporting advocates; it provides a framework for understanding when the principle applies
- The examples (gas tanks vs. global warming) illustrate different types of uncertainty rather than supporting the advocates' position
- The paragraph is analytical and explanatory rather than argumentative
Common Student Mistakes:
- Does mentioning global warming count as evidence for advocates?
→ No, global warming is used as an example of "true uncertainty," not as evidence that the precautionary principle is correct - Doesn't explaining when the principle applies help the advocates' case?
→ Clarification of scope is different from providing evidence; the paragraph explains application criteria, not why the principle is good
- The paragraph doesn't summarize advocates' arguments from earlier in the passage
- A summary would restate points about science's fallibility, common sense, etc.
- Instead, the paragraph introduces new technical concepts (uncertainty vs. true uncertainty)
Common Student Mistakes:
- Isn't clarifying when the principle applies the same as summarizing advocates' views?
→ No, advocates' arguments were about why the principle is needed; this paragraph explains when it's applicable - Does the global warming example summarize earlier advocate points?
→ No, global warming wasn't mentioned earlier; it's a new example to illustrate "true uncertainty"
- The paragraph doesn't address or challenge opponents' arguments about the principle being unscientific or economically wasteful
- The technical distinction between types of uncertainty doesn't refute opponents' claims
- The paragraph is neutral and explanatory rather than argumentative against opponents
Common Student Mistakes:
- Doesn't showing there are different types of uncertainty challenge opponents who say the principle is unscientific?
→ No, the paragraph explains when the principle applies, not whether opponents' criticisms are valid - Doesn't the technical framework counter opponents' arguments?
→ The framework is descriptive, not defensive; it doesn't argue against opponents' concerns
- The paragraph explicitly states "It is this latter situation [true uncertainty] with which advocates of the precautionary principle are primarily concerned"
- It distinguishes between situations where the principle would and wouldn't apply (uncertainty vs. true uncertainty)
- The examples clarify the scope: gas tanks (calculable risk, regular regulations) vs. global warming (incalculable risk, precautionary principle)
- The paragraph's function is definitional and clarifying rather than argumentative
Key Evidence: "The distinction between uncertainty and what might be called 'true uncertainty' is important to understanding the scope of the precautionary principle... It is this latter situation with which advocates of the precautionary principle are primarily concerned."
- The examples (gas tanks and global warming) illustrate different types of uncertainty, not appropriate applications of the principle
- The gas tank example actually shows when the precautionary principle would NOT apply (since probabilities can be calculated)
- Only global warming represents an appropriate application, and it's used to illustrate "true uncertainty" rather than demonstrate proper implementation
Common Student Mistakes:
- Doesn't global warming show appropriate application of the precautionary principle?
→ Global warming illustrates "true uncertainty," but the paragraph doesn't describe how the principle should be applied to it - Aren't both examples showing real-world applications?
→ The gas tank example shows when regular regulations (not the precautionary principle) would be appropriate